Traditional Russian Folk Art Styles as a Reflection of Russian Identity-大连外国语大学东北亚研究院

Traditional Russian Folk Art Styles as a Reflection of Russian Identity

发布日期：2023-04-14　　来源：大连外国语大学东北亚研究院　　点击量：

Anna Biķerniece

If you enter Russian souvenir shops, you will see a great variety of beautiful objects that every foreigner would associate with Russian culture and lifestyle – Matryoshka dolls, colourful shawls, painted wooden boxes, flowery metal trays and so on. Once a consultant approaches you, you may hear weird words defining these objects – Pavlovo-Posad, Hohloma, Zhostovo, Fedoskino, Palekh, etc. What do these words mean? They are about traditional Russian art approaches originating in different regions of Russia. Examining them sheds some light on the connection between Russian traditional culture and Russian soul, gives an idea about features intrinsic to Russian identity.

Historical background

The history of Russian traditional art and craft can be divided into several periods similar to the history of Russian state in general. These periods are – pre-yoke period of Russian kingdoms, unification of Russia under the leadership of Moscow, pre-Smuta (period of Trouble) and after-Smuta periods (Moscow Kingdom and Russian Empire), Soviet Russia and Post-Soviet Russia.

The pre-yoke period (IX-XII centuries) was a period of development of Russian crafts, especially out of clay, metal and wood. The merchants shipped the goods actively through a major trade route that connected Scandinavian Peninsula with Byzantine Empire – the route from “Varyag to Greek” going through the territory of early Slavic Kingdims – Novgorod and Kiev Rus. This route had a very positive influence on Slavic craft development due to a great demand in both domestic and foreign markets, and, as kingdoms were quiet independent from each other, each region developed its’ own approach to craftsmanship using various artistic elements.

The XII century has seen a dramatic change in the craft development. The Mongol yoke brought destruction to many areas of Russian kingdoms, and apart from Novgorod republic, almost every other area has severely suffered during the invasion. Artisans, among many others, became victims of this invasion, and the only region that still was able to continue Russian craft tradition remained Novgorod and Russian north that it controlled. There, woodcrafts, such as wooden goods and toys[1], clay[2] and metal production[3] continued to develop. However, Novgorod republic has also seen crafts decline amid Mongol control of the South and Central Russian kingdoms as the trade route from “Varyag to Greek” has been destroyed. The period of XII-XIV centuries became Dark ages for Russian crafts and arts development.

With the Mongol yoke overthrow, the crafts started to revive all over Slavic Rus kingdoms. While the centralization process reached out for more Russian kingdoms, the prerequisites for further development of the crafts and arts became obvious. Unified territory and laws brought a better environment for spreading crafts both within Russian boundaries and outside. However, this was still time when domestic consumption dominated, and the crafts were not considered “a Russian mark”. However, once the inner demand became stable, the art also became part of daily goods production. Since XV century, clay, metal, wood and bark production righteously have become artistic, with many decoration elements in them and more to develop. This is the period when such iconic Russian art traditions as Hohloma and Palekh start their development.

After Smuta (Trouble Times) in Russia in early XVII century, a new Romanov dynasty came to power. Even before Peter I, the Romanov policy was to learn from the West, and transfer technologies and crafts that were developed in Europe at that time. Hence, under Western influence, Russians adopted new technologies for wool and textile production, lace, glass, porcelain and new technologies of clay processing. New craft centers emerged such as Zhostovo, Gzhel, Fedoskino, Vologda and Beloozero lace productions, etc. In the XVII-XIX centuries, these crafts have evolved into internationally recognized artistic crafts. By the end of the XIX century, some “classical” elements of Russian culture also developed in Russia – Matryoshka dolls[4] or Bogorod wooden toys[5], for example. But the former was a Russian reflection of foreign toys, while Bogorod wooden toys reflected an old Russian tradition.

A new and significant shift in Russian crafts came after the November revolution of 1918. New Soviet state paid a huge attention to artisan production, and this became a period of Russian crafts’ revival with the socialist approach to them. As Russian artisan production was legacy of national culture, a special decree was published and signed by Vladimir Lenin, stating that “all enterprises of small handicraft and handicraft industry are not subject to either municipalisation, nationalization, or confiscation except in particularly exceptional cases”.[6] The interest in national crafts has helped to revive some after stagnation of late XIX century, or transformed others like icon production of Palekh and Mstyora. Soviet period also became time when Russian crafts became iconic representation of Russian culture and identity, especially in the second part of XX century when Soviet artists and crafts makers joined international exhibitions and contests.

Late XX century became another challenge for Russian crafts. However, with the changes to economic structure of the country the iconic craft styles like Hohloma, Palekh, Gzhel, Zhostovo, Pavlovo-Posad, and Fedoskino found their ways in various items produced as a symbol of Russian style. Now we can find them in any gift shop around Russia and also in Russian everyday life not only as traditional items. Many elements of every day life – clothes, linen, tableware, furniture have applied and mixed up traditional Russian styles.

Let us now present a brief overview of most classic Russian styles in traditional craft production.

Hohloma

One of the most “traditional” Russian styles is called Hohloma, by the name of an ancient trading village in Russian region of Nizhny Novgorod.[7] There merchants from neighboring territories brought their pieces of craft that were united by their unique style – bright, contrast and appealing – since the XVII century[8]. For this, it also got its name as “Golden Hohloma”.[9] Usually wooden objects – sugar bowls, saltshakers, ladles and lidded utensils – were covered in vivid ornament of birds, grass, plants, flowers, and berries, and processed with lacquer to give them shiny gloss. The colours were not many – traditionally only bright red, black and golden, sometimes green was added. The curly style of the picture and repetition gave an impression of movement to the object. Moreover, the very elements portrayed – blooming plants and berries – were the symbols of wellness, happiness and prosperity wishes. Because of the simplicity of the picture and its’ brightness at the same time, the style has survived centuries of Russian history and is still a very popular Russian identity element.

Hohloma wooden tableware. Lenin’s factory.[10]

Gzhel

Another renowned Russian style is called Gzhel. White and blue painting of various parts of plants a similar to Hohloma style apart from the colour choice have long enriched Russian clay tableware. The history of clay production is old one, but the style that is so well recognized was formed only in the second part of XVIII century.[11] A region of Gzhel is rich with clay, and therefore, ceramic production was always popular there. In the XVIII century, the region produced household items mostly, gradually introducing art into its production. By the end of the XVIII century region became already famous by its colourful majolica goods decorated with various picture and motives – plants, animals (especially birds), flowers.[12] United by one name of Gzhel, the production is quite diverse, including not only traditional iconic blue and white items, but also colorful ones. Moreover, masters from Gzhel region adopted and developed many famous clay processing techniques. Majolica – a painted and glazed clay originating in Majorca – was one of the first styles adopted in Russia, but it declined soon after semi-faience and faience technology spread. It was exactly the semi-faience technology – kind of a coloured and glazed clay that has a specific gloss, technology originating in France – that has adopted classical white and blue style since 1820s.[13] More than 30 factories in Gzhel region were producing faience in 1830s-1840s, mostly household items – tableware sets.[14]Most of these were blue and white, symbolizing the winter land and sky of the region, but the colourful tableware was still in great demand. Moreover, Gzhel region was also popular for its porcelain production. One on the reasons was that artisans tried to make their product people-oriented, affordable. This also was reflected in bright but simple curly style implying images from daily life. After the October Revolution, the people-oriented style and production were highly appreciated by the new Government, and in the 1920s, Gzhel factories got significant support.[15] This attention helped make Gzhel white and blue style one of the most recognized Russian styles in the world.

Gzhel tableware.[16]

Palekh

Another old and traditional Russian style is called Palekh. Again, its’ name is originated in the name of a town famous for icon writing since XVII century.[17] Gradually, icon writing declined in Palekh, and was totally abolished after the Revolution of 1918. But the tradition of lacquer art has survived, and in the 1920s, Palekh artists have developed their unique lacquer miniature style based on icon writing traditions painting wooden boxes, cigarette cases and other wooden household items.[18] Traditionally, the background of the picture is black, and a colourfulimage portraying a moving scene is placed in the center. Initially, in the first years after the Revolution, artists used various motives, including ideological, traditional folk images and Russian fairytale motives. Gradually these motives evolved into a structured and framed approach. The artists developed their taste to Russian traditional symbols and folk stories images – troika, everyday images of traditional Russian life, romantic images from Russian fairytales and folk stories, and so on. An interesting fact is that to polish a picture after it is varnished artisans use a wolf’s tooth even in modern production process.[19] The specific trait of fairytale, folk, lively and melodic picture is intrinsic to the Palekh art. For this, the Palekh artists are called “fairytale tellers”.[20]

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Palekh. Troika wooden box.[21]

Palekh is one out of four traditional lacquer miniature productions in Russia, together with Mstyora, Holuy (since 1920s) and Fedoskino (since late XVIII century).[22] Mstyora and Holuy share the same history as Palekh, being traditional centers of icon writing. They changed their approach in 1920s becoming centers of lacquer miniature on wooden objects. The style, however, is closer to Fedoskino style. Fedoskino had a different history of traditionally painting beautiful sceneries of Russian life without the background of being religious art. Because of this, the styles differ slightly. Traced lines and solemn face expressions are missing from Fedoskino art. It is as colourful as Palekh, but lines of a painting are smoothand tender. The picture usually occupies the whole space available without specific black background left intrinsic to Palekh art.

Mstyora. A wooden box “Evening”. 1970.[23]

Holuy. A wooden box “Troika”. 1950s.[24]

Fedoskino. Wooden box “Winter”. 1984.[25]

Zhostovo

Metalwork developed variously through Russia since long ago, but Zhostovo metalwork, which first started to develop as papier-mâché trays production, became a renowned style together with Hohloma, Gzhel and Palekh. The village of Zhostovo became famous for its trays with colourful flower bouquets on the black background since the beginning of XIX century.[26] Interestingly, the style originated in smooth lines of Fedoskino art adopting metalworking techniques of Tagil smiths and artists. The famous double brush stroke came from Tagil artists, while specific volume of the picture was adopted from Fedoskino artists.[27] The production process is a difficult one, including neat work of a smith (created the form), a putty maker (put the layer of ground coat), and an artist who finished the tray with a traditional design.[28] The combination of approaches created another well-recognised style of flowery volume picture on the black background. The Zhostovo metal trays are characterized by warm and various colours, volumetricpicture using traditional Russian motives of flowers and plants (more rarely, daily life pictures) on the black background and a lined graphic edge design.[29] In the middle of the XX century, Zhostovo art has undergone crisis because of mechanization of production process, but it recovered once again when artists implemented their unique styles into technical production. Moreover, the assortment of items produced has become larger. Apart from the trays, the factory now produces children toys – buckets, spades and small trays.[30]

Zhostovo tray “Troika”. 1870s.[31]

Russian clothes styles

Development of clothing ornamentation in Russia was gradual. First, it was devoted to special occasions like birth, baptizing, weddings, funerals. Later, decoration of clothes evolved due to domestic needs and under foreign influence, first in rich and noble families, and later among peasants. Two areas where development became a cultural element were Russian shawls and lace production.

Shawls

Traditionally, shawls and scarves were an intrinsic part of Russian clothing culture due to severe weather conditions, especially in the North. The process of production was simple handicraft, but a variety of bright colours applying “peasant” motives – plants, flowers, ornate patterns was popular. With many colours being in use, the dominant colour was red – more than six various shades of red were constantly in use for scarves and shawl production.[32] Gradually, factory production replaced peasant handicraft scarves by the end of the XVII century and became more massive. Until the very end of the XVIII century, however, this bright flowery style was popular among peasantry mostly. Only at the beginning of XIX century, shawls became popular among nobility. After Napoleon presented a bright Persian shawl to his wife, Josephine, European, and then Russian noble women wanted to have this element of wardrobe for themselves.[33] And Russian styles for shawls, which were very close in their brightness and variety to Persian, spread first in Russia, and then abroad. However, it took another 30 years for Russian shawls to reach the level of quality the same as Persian shawls and they even became superior to them. In 1829, there was an exhibition of Russian shawls, many of which were highly assessed by the commission.[34] Thus, the history of Russian shawl style recognized internationally started.

The most famous region for shawl production in Russia is Ivanovo region near Moscow. The first factory was constructed there in 1745[35], and by 1830s there were about 180 factories.[36] The demand for shawls opened more opportunities for factory owners and for artists, who were mostly peasants. More artists joined decoration styles design process, and even schools for artists and decorating masters have been opened in Moscow for the needs of the factories.[37] These artists gradually developed similar shawl style characterized by clear and variedcomposition, narrow pattern line at the edges, white (sometimes red or black) background, calm and rhythmic sequencing of patterns and flowery/plant motives.[38] These became iconic for all Russian shawls, but the most popular became Pavlovo-Posad shawls – the production of a factory established in 1812 in Pavlovo-Posad by a peasant Semyon Labzin.[39]The factory became famous for its cotton shawls, and also started production of wool and semi wool shawls in the mid XIX century organizing mass production. After the Revolution the factory has been nationalized, but continued its productive work, switching to automatic production in the 1957.[40] Until now, Pavlovo-Posad shawls are part of iconic bright image of Russian crafts.

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Pavlovo-Posad shawl.[41]

Lace

Lace, though not being bright and colourful as the shawls in Russia, presents a unique example of high quality and expertise of Russian lace producers. Russian lace came to Russia from the Western countries, and developed into its’ own, special style. Initially, it was a peasant or oversea production of golden of silver lace ornaments (silk string wrapped in gold, silver or copper), and was very popular among nobility.[42]Only by the beginning of the XVIII century, Russia developed its own production of valuable strings, and their usage for lace production.[43] By then, Russian lace masters developed their preferences in the decoration elements – flowers and plants. However, it was a limited production, and only for the needs of rich people. The situation changed in 1725, when Peter the Great ordered 30 lacemakers from Brabant (nowadays the Netherlands), to come to Novo-Devichiy monastery near Moscow.[44] This was when first Russian girls and young women (peasants and serves) started to get education in the lace-making art. They did not use metal strings, but replaced them with silk and flax string. Some decades later, first lace manufactures were opened in Orlov Governorate (now Oryol region) and Simbirsk Governorate (now Ulyanovsk region).[45] They mass produced bed covers, capes, lace dresses and measured out lace. The majority of lace production was domestic and for domestic needs, though, and in many cases was not for sale. The conditions of work for peasant lace masters were very hard – they had to work long hours, for almost all their life. Moreover, they could not have private live or have children[46] as they devoted all their time to mastering their skills. For this reason, only after the abolition of servitude in Russia in 1861, there was shift in lace production. Schools for lacemakers were opened, and the conditions of their work improved, but there still was no systemic production of lace, despite great demand. After an exhibition in 1873 in Vienna, Russian lace became very popular in Europe.[47] Despite traditional centers of lace production in Russia have already been formed – Orlov Governorate, Vologda, Elets, Belozersk – the production volumes were not abundant. This was partly to the servitude legacy – the lace production was a hard work and not many wanted to do this, and the materials were quite expensive. For this reason, gradually the cotton string has been introduced into production.

By the end of the XIX century, Russian lacemakers have developed their unique style, though every region had a specific approach to it. In general, lace was made using flax or silk (later cotton) string, the favourite motive was a bird in all shapes and forms, including mythical siren bird and griffin.[48] The colour was mostly white (or slightly yellowish depending on the quality of flax whitening). In some regions black string was also very popular or even bright and colourful – blue, red, green, like in Kostroma region.[49]Lace picture was tender and curly, with a constant and rhythmic repetition of patterns. After the Revolution, the interest in lace revived and now it became an element of daily life – not only clothes, but also bed covers, sheets, serviettes, curtains, hallway rugs an so on had lace elements in them.[50] Traditional plant and flowery patterns, birds now were combined with a great variety of images, including buildings, daily Soviet lifestyle or even vehicles.

Vologda lace museum exposition.[51]

Vologda region lace.[52]

Russian crafts and arts are diverse and are not limited to the above mentioned. However, these styles became iconic for both Russians and foreigners, being a result of long process of Russian crafts' evolution beginning with the early years of Russian Slavic kingdoms. They represent best Russian mentality, approach to life and preferences; give an explicit picture of the elements that dominated Russian folk lifestyle for several centuries.

Traits and characteristics of Russian art

Russian craft art is an intrinsic part of Russian identity. It is an element that represents popular Russian culture, and therefore, represents Russian people. However, there is a clash of notions at the very basis of defining Russian identity. In Russian language, unlike foreign languages, there are two words describing “Russian”. One is “rossiyskiy” representing Russian as a whole country definition. It has been in use since Russian Empire times to embrace all unities living within Russian Empire. Hence, this terms reflects the diversity of Russian nations, which are about 200 nations[53], all of them officially recognized by the Constitution of the Russian Federation.[54]The main criteria for evaluating “rossiyskiy” is being a citizen of the Russian Federation, it is not a cultural, but rather a political concept. Another term is “russkiy”, which is about belonging to Russian nation. This is a majority or about 80% of the total Russian population[55], but is not the only recognized nation in the country. Undoubtedly, though, it is a state-constructing nation, sharing Russian language as a state language with the rest of the nations, and having a great cultural impact. However, it would be wrong to equal these two terms, especially recently since the Government has supported the idea of smaller nations culture legacy revival. For majority of Russian citizens the above mentioned styles are part of important cultural legacy for the central and Northern regions of Russian Western regions, belonging to the “russkiy” legacy.

At the same time, for foreigners, who usually do not distinct between two ideas, these styles represent a compressed approach to understanding Russian culture and identity as a whole. This approach can be justified to an extent, because the core Russian identity shaped social and political institutes of the country for many centuries. One should remember, however, that it is only part of Russian identity, or rather 80% of it.

In terms of Russian craft itself, it represents a combination of historical periods, all of which contributed significantly to the development of Russian (“russkiy”) identity. The periods can be roughly described as such: (1) pre-yoke – early development, (2) yoke period – destruction and loss of a larger part of artistic craft, (3) post-yoke period and unification of Russia – Western influence and adoption and development by Russian artisans, (4) post-Revolution period – revival of national crafts and their adoption to the needs of the Soviet state. The styles that every Russian knows and foreigners recognize as iconic Russian styles have been developed during the latter two periods, but their roots can be traced back into early Russian history. Because of this, history matters a lot to Russians.

The crafts also used to represent national or peoples’ preferences. For this reason, so much has been done during the Soviet times to spread and promote these style even abroad, and to make them recognizable. And now people accepted these styles as truly describing Russian identity. For this reason, one can claim that the mutual influence process has reached a certain point when Russian artistic craft styles started representing Russian identity to a certain extent.

Similarities of traditional arts and crafts. Comparative chart.

The traditional styles mentioned in the article have their differences and similarities. Based on the description above, a following comparative chart can be presented.

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All these styles and craft areas have obvious similarities despite covering different areas of life. They all pay a lot of attention to natural elements and refle ct nature to a great extent. The artists use contrast and warm colours (with the exception for Gzhel), there is vividness and calm repetition of motives, curliness of lines, and they all are applicable for daily use making everyday life more cheerful. The idea of making life more cheerful despite difficulties is one of the crucial components of Russian lifestyle since yoke period. Whatever the situation in the country is, Russians tend to brighten their life with cozy and vivid elements that are usually not for everyone to see. For this reason, all the colorful and cheerful elements that surrounded Russian families in their everyday life became popular abroad only in later Soviet era, when the Government was trying to create this image of Russians in the foreign surrounding by presenting these elements in international exhibitions.

Conclusion

For both Russians and foreigners, Russian crafts are reflection of the identity, but the accent is different. Russians see into depths and history of the crafts, for them it is a symbol of historical legacy, some of which is traced back to early years of Rus culture. Moreover, it was an element of something positive and bright to lighten up every day routine. With Russian culture and identity forged under some pressing, sometimes oppressing circumstances, the craft became a source of positive approach to life. Hence, all the bright and contrast colours, their variety and the variety of art elements and curliness of the lines. People, especially lower class, gradually implied this approach of treating life into their mentality – the outside can be shabby, but the inside should be cozy and positive.

For foreigners, Russian crafts give an idea about bright and light-hearted backbone of Russian identity. They see the top of the iceberg of Russian mentality without reaching the depth of historical legacy. This might be the benefit, as there is no need for an in-depth analysis of Russian culture. One, however, should remember that despite being culture of majority, the styles that are so popular, represent only part of Russian state nations, and, therefore, part of Russian state identity. It is a symbol of positive approach that Russians imply in their life, but it is also a symbol of complexity of the culture of Russian state, and differentiation of various cultures of Russian nations.

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[451] Там же.

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文字： Anna Biķerniece

审核：郝利群薛晓芃吕平

编辑：韩德睿程祯露

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欢迎访问 大连外国语大学东北亚研究院

Traditional Russian Folk Art Styles as a Reflection of Russian Identity

欢迎访问大连外国语大学东北亚研究院